REPORTS & DISCUSSION PAPERS

Published Content

Our research program exists to push boundaries, which is reflected in our published work. We tackle overlooked yet essential questions that often go unasked in traditional academic circles—bringing them into the spotlight and real-world practice. Explore our full range of publications, from in-depth reports and research papers to innovative initiatives and more.

Institute Reports & Discussion Papers Peer-Reviewed Staff Publications Professional Initiatives GHGMI Surveys, Reports & UNFCCC Submissions

Institute Reports & Discussion Papers

What is GHG Accounting? (2023-2024)

Inside the Institute Blog Series. Through a series of installments, Gillenwater interrogates this question and advances our fundamental understanding of the purpose, definitions, rules, and conceptualization of GHG accounting.

ICAT Agriculture Methodology (2023)

The Agriculture Methodology supports the assessment of the impact of policies designed to reduce GHG emissions from the agricultural sector. This assessment guide is relevant to all countries and regions, and includes comprehensive consideration of major agricultural emission sources and mitigation measures.

FAQs: Green Power Purchasing Claims and GHG Accounting (2022)

This clean energy purchasing FAQ guide addresses complicated issues in GHG emissions accounting and reporting with respect to green power purchasing claims by electricity end-use consumers.

GHG Emissions Accounting for Battery Energy Storage Systems (2021)

This EPRI Technical Brief provides an overview of beneficial applications for integrating battery energy storage into the electric power grid, the life-cycle GHG emissions, and how these emissions may be accounted for in electric company GHG emissions inventories.

GHG Emissions Accounting for Electric Companies (2021)

This report is a compendium of briefing papers and FAQs developed to support a series of webcasts EPRI hosted in 2020 and 2021 as part of a project on Greenhouse Gas Emissions Accounting for Electric Power Companies.

The most important GHG accounting concept you may not have heard of: the attributional-consequential distinction (2021)

This paper explains the key differences between attributional and consequential GHG accounting. It emphasizes that using the wrong method can lead to misleading results and ineffective climate policies.

Global Database of National GHG Inventory Capacity in Developing Countries (2020)

Groundbreaking database of indices assess the relative capacity of developing countries to prepare national GHGIs under the UNFCCC and lend insight into other climate measurement, reporting, and verification areas.

ICAT Forest Methodology (2020)

The Forestry Methodology helps policymakers assess the impacts of forest policies to ensure that they are effective in mitigating greenhouse gas emissions.

Methods to Account for GHG Emissions Embedded in Wholesale Power Purchases (2019)

This report reviews how U.S. and international programs account for electric company GHG emissions, focusing on indirect CO₂ emissions from wholesale power transactions delivered to retail customers.

Response to the Greenhouse Gas Protocol’s Consultation on Draft Scope 2 Guidance (2015)

Representing leading independent academic and professional institutions, the submission expresses concerns about the Greenhouse Gas Protocol’s Scope 2 Guidance , emphasizing the need for accurate, credible, and decision-useful GHG accounting.

What is Additionality? Part 1: a long standing problem (2012)

This article is the first in a three-part series whose overall aim is to more precisely define the terms “additionality” and “baseline” in the context of environmental policy and propose a conceptual framework for applying these concepts within offset programs.

What is Additionality? Part 2: A framework for more precise definitions and standardized approaches (2012)

This article proposes a conceptual framework for offset policy makers and program administrators to shift the additionality and baseline assessment process from subjective “tests” towards more standardized approaches based on explicitly recognized policy interventions, theories of behavior, and objective models.

What is Additionality? Part 3: Implication for stacking and unbundling (2012)

This article applies the definitions and framework regarding additionality and baselines from Parts 1 and 2 of this series to this issue of stacking. It presents specific options for how to apply the concept of additionality to activities that could potentially stack offset credits and outlines a practical way forward for policy makers.

Issue Brief: Taking Quality Assurance Seriously in Carbon Markets (2010)

This issue brief highlights the critical need for rigorous quality assurance in GHG emission markets. It recommends mandatory professional certification for verifiers, enhanced training programs, robust oversight structures, and the development of professional codes to ensure the credibility and effectiveness of climate policies and carbon markets

Issue Brief: Green Jobs Training, Promoting Accountability in Carbon Markets (2010)

This issue brief highlights a critical shortage of trained professionals in GHG accounting, auditing, and management, which poses risks to the integrity of carbon markets and climate policies. It discusses the need for targeted education and training programs to create well-paying green jobs, support economic recovery, and ensure reliable tracking of climate progress.

Assessing Offset Quality in the Clean Development Mechanism (2009)

This paper seeks to provide an impartial description of the CDM and analyze its ability to ensure offset quality in the future. Specifically, this paper analyzes the CDM through the prism of the core criteria for offset quality outlined in OQI’s white paper titled Ensuring Offset Quality: Integrating High Quality Greenhouse Gas Offsets Into North American Cap-and-Trade Policy.

Maintaining Market Integrity: Why Renewable Energy Certificates Are Not Offsets (2009)

Over the past decade, markets have been used to promote climate mitigation by creating tradable commodities like GHG reductions and renewable energy. This brief explains why renewable energy certificates (RECs), whether in voluntary or mandatory markets, are not equivalent to GHG emission offsets.

Ensuring Offset Quality: Integrating High Quality GHG offsets into North American Cap-and-Trade Policy (2008)

This document is intended to provide policymakers with practical recommendations regarding the integration of GHG offsets into emerging regulatory systems. Offsets have an important role to play in controlling the costs associated with regulating and reducing GHGs, and in driving technology transformation in sectors not mandated to reduce their GHG emissions.

Corporate Power Purchase Agreements: A Policy Perspective (2024)

Power purchase agreements, particularly by non-utilities, have driven renewable energy growth in the U.S., with impacts varying by project type and region. This paper examines the policy and GHG accounting implications, including relevance to the GHG Protocol update.

Corporate Power Purchase Agreements and Renewable Energy Growth (2023)

This paper analyzes the impact of power purchase agreements (PPAs) on U.S. renewable energy deployment from 1990 to 2021, finding that PPAs—unlike voluntary REC markets—significantly influence renewable capacity, though effects vary by signer, technology, and location. It concludes that non-utility PPAs should be treated as external interventions in greenhouse gas accounting.

Journal Climate Policy Volume 24, 2024 - Issue 2

National GHG inventory capacity in developing countries – a global assessment of progress (2023)

Many developing countries have made progress in greenhouse gas inventory (GHGI) capacity since 1997, but significant gaps remain—particularly in promptness, accuracy, and consistency. A global assessment of 369 inventories shows that only about half of 133 countries improved over time, highlighting the need for targeted capacity-building and better data to support climate goals under the Paris Agreement.

Journal of Cleaner Production, Volume 245, 1 February 2020

Lessons learned for future transparency capacity building under the Paris Agreement: A review of GHG inventory capacity building projects in Viet Nam and Cambodia (2020)

This study reviews 20 years of capacity building support for GHG inventories in Viet Nam and Cambodia. Support increased after biennial reporting began, with Viet Nam receiving more assistance despite Cambodia’s greater needs. The authors recommend improved global monitoring and project-level evaluations for more effective future support.

Creative accounting: A critical perspective on the market-based method for reporting purchased electricity (scope 2) emissions (2017)

Electricity generation is a major source of global GHG emissions, but the market-based method for corporate electricity accounting misrepresents emissions and has limited climate impact. This study outlines its shortcomings and offers recommendations to improve GHG accounting standards.

Journal Environmental Science & Policy Volume 78, December 2017, Pages 66-73

Greenhouse gas emissions inventory capacity An assessment of Asian developing countries (2017)

This paper critically examines the market-based method for reporting Scope 2 (purchased electricity) emissions, arguing that it distorts actual emissions and misguides mitigation efforts. The authors highlight how the method allows firms to claim emissions reductions without real-world impact and call for reforms to improve transparency and effectiveness in GHG reporting.

Lessons learned in mandatory carbon market development (2017)

This paper reviews the evolution and challenges of emissions trading schemes (ETS) since the Kyoto Protocol, now covering about 12% of global emissions. It identifies seven key factors for successful ETS implementation—such as cap setting, offset regulation, and monitoring—and analyzes them through global case studies. The authors argue that careful design and coordination can lead to effective ETSs with strong environmental outcomes and potential for international linkage.

LiDAR-Assisted Multi-Source Program (LAMP) for Measuring Above Ground Biomass and Forest Carbon (2017)

This study presents LAMP, a model combining field data, LiDAR, and satellite imagery to estimate forest biomass for REDD+ in Southern Nepal. Two variants (LAMP2 and LAMP3) yielded reliable emission reference levels, with biomass estimate errors of 35–39% and 14% pixel-level accuracy.

Article on the Clean Development Mechanism: A review of the first international offset program.

The Clean Development Mechanism: A Review of the First International Offset Program (2011)

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) helped create a global carbon offset market through projects in developing countries, despite challenges in project quality and governance. Though not a Kyoto signatory, the U.S. supported the CDM concept to lower emissions costs. This paper reviews CDM lessons and proposes principles for ensuring high-quality offsets in future climate policy.

Paper: GHG schemes addressing climate change How ISO standards help

GHG schemes addressing climate change: How ISO standards help (2010)

This publication provides information to potential users of GHG standards and programmes. It gives a brief overview of the climate change context and provides a map of available GHG standards, as well as those currently in development.

The Carbon Offset Guide, Second Edition (2025)

An expert resource for understanding carbon credits and offsets to help you build smarter, more effective greenhouse gas mitigation strategies. This guide is for companies and organizations seeking to understand carbon credits and how to use them in voluntary GHG reduction strategies. It may also be useful for individuals interested in using carbon credits to compensate for their personal emissions.

Paper: Coalition on Paris Agreement Capacity Building Leadership for Empowering People and Institutions in the New Era of Climate Action

The Coalition on Paris Agreement Capacity Building: Leadership for Empowering People and Institutions in the New Era of Climate Action (2016)

Climate change capacity building has relied too heavily on short-term, foreign-led efforts. A shift to long-term, locally rooted strategies—such as institutional support, mentoring, and peer learning—is needed to build sustainable capacity. The Coalition on Paris Agreement Capacity Building calls for coordinated investment and a global strategy to close the gap between ambition and implementation.

Paper: How did intended nationally determined contributions (INDCs) address capacity building? Implications for future communication by Parties on capacity building under the Paris Agreement

The Coalition on Paris Agreement Capacity Building: How did intended nationally determined contributions address capacity building? (2016)

This paper assesses a sample of intended nationally determined contribution submissions under the UNFCCC to explore how capacity building is identified and mentioned by Parties in the context of their pledged contributions towards the new Paris Agreement.

Paper on Can we expect a transformative shift in international capacity building after Paris?

The Coalition on Paris Agreement Capacity Building: Can we expect a transformative shift in international capacity building after Paris? Observations from Party submissions (2016)

Many developing countries lack the capacity to track and report GHG emissions under the Paris Agreement. To address this, COP21 created the PCCB and CBIT. This paper reviews Party submissions to assess expectations for transformative capacity building through these new initiatives.

Paper: Challenges and Proposed Reforms to the UNFCCC Expert Review Process for the Enhanced Transparency Framework

The Coalition on Paris Agreement Capacity Building: Challenges and proposed reforms to the UNFCCC Expert Review Process for the Enhanced Transparency Framework (2016)

The Paris Agreement’s Enhanced Transparency Framework requires all countries to submit more detailed climate reports every two years, greatly expanding the scope and complexity of reviews. Existing UN review systems are insufficient, and without redesign, the process will be unsustainable by 2025.

Comments to the Ad Hoc Working Group on the Paris Agreement

GHGMI’s comments to the UNFCCC Ad Hoc Working Group on the Paris Agreement (2017)

GHGMI submitted comments on its views on issues under agenda item 5: Modalities, procedures and guidelines for the transparency framework for action and support referred to in Article 13 of the Paris Agreement.

GHGMI's submitted comments to the UNFCCC Ad Hoc Working Group on the Paris Agreement

GHGMI’s comments to the UNFCCC Ad Hoc Working Group on the Paris Agreement (2017)

GHGMI’s submitted comments on further guidance on: (a) features of nationally determined contributions, as specified in paragraph 26; (b) information to facilitate clarity, transparency and understanding of nationally determined contributions, as specified in paragraph 28; and (c) accounting for Parties’ nationally determined contributions, as specified in paragraph 31.

2009 Greenhouse Gas and Climate Change Workforce Needs Assessment Survey Report

The Greenhouse Gas and Climate Change Workforce Needs Assessment Survey was created to uncover some of the unique challenges facing this growing and diverse industry and, specifically, to obtain data regarding industry perceptions, growth projections, workforce needs, policy responses, favored/disfavored protocols, human capital needs and training practices, and other key developments related to this emerging and important global profession.

2010 Greenhouse Gas and Climate Change Workforce Needs Assessment Survey Report

GHGMI Greenhouse Gas Inventory Report (2009)

This report presents the 2009 base year estimates for the GHGMI GHG emissions inventory. As a leader in education and professional development on greenhouse gas management, one of the Institute’s objectives in developing this inventory is to lead by example, publishing an estimate of the GHG emissions related to our operations consistent with the international standards we teach.

GHGMI Greenhouse Gas Inventory Report (2019)

This emissions inventory report presents the greenhouse gas (GHG) emission estimate resulting from the Greenhouse Gas Management Institute (GHGMI) operations in the calendar year 2019. The report includes relevant calculation methodology, assumptions made, time-series comparisons, and recommendations for reduction strategies and improvement for future inventories.